The study of the earth's physical nature and properties

What the Theory of Evolution Says

The Theory of Evolution is biological theory intended to describe the origin and development of life on Earth. However, the word evolution is used in astronomy to describe the origin of the universe and simply means "change" over time. Stellar evolution, the evolution of the stars, for example, describes star burning process during the life of a star, from "birth" to "death".

Many early scientists and philosophers thought the universe was static, continuous and unchanging. The current major theory offered for how the universe "evolved" is the Big Bang theory. This theory proposes that the entire universe, including the Milky Way galaxy containing our solar system, exploding from super-hot "point", some 15 billion years ago. The theory says that the universe continues to expand, as predicted by solutions to Einstein's General Theory of Relativity.

What Evolutionists Say We Ought to See

If the Big Bang theory, proposed in 1917, explains the formation of the universe, we should see stars and planets moving away from each other like particles moving away from the point of an explosion. We should also still see some radiation from the Big Bang's fiery explosion, predicted by physicist George Gamow and his students, in the 1940's. Both of these effects have been observed exactly as predicted.

The Big Bang theory and general relativity predict that the universe had a beginning and that space and time were created at a point some 15 billion years ago. Scientists do not know what caused the Big Bang. They simply call it "the CAUSE".

What We Actually Observe in Nature

Scientists observe that the universe is expanding and most likely had a fiery beginning. In 1914 astronomer Vesto Slipher, cited by Kitty Ferguson, observed that some galaxies are moving away from our Milky Way galaxy at enormous speeds as predicted subsequently by the Big Bang theory. In the late 1920's another astronomer, Edwin Hubble, measured the distance to and the velocity of many more of these galaxies establishing the expansion rate for the universe. Those galaxies farthest away, move at the greatest speeds. If we could look back in time, all the matter of the universe might appear in a very compact state at a very high temperature.

The universe is far from being static, as some philosophers and scientist proposed; rather, it is expanding. The Big Bang theory which predicted that traces of energy from and initial fiery explosion would remain today got a big boost in 1964 when two physicists, Amo Penzias and Robert Wilson of Bell Laboratories, measured this background radiation remnant. More than 25 years later, further measurements of this radiation by the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE Satellite) fit the Big Bang theory's prediction perfectly.

What Scientists Say

Some scientists have resisted the Big Bang idea, possibly because it sounds too much like Biblical Creation. In the 1920's Albert Einstein proposed a rival theory of a static universe --- infinitely large and indefinitely old --- with no beginning (no Big Bang). He had to change the general relativity equations to obtain these results. However, this modified theory did not agree with actual observations. Later, Einstein was quoted as saying, "this was the greatest mistake of my life." Einstein finally accepted the necessity of a beginning and the presence of a superior reasoning power, but not a personal God.

In 1948 eminent astronomer Sir Fred Hoyle and a few other scientists developed a continuous creation solution called the steady state model. However, observations now prove that the steady state model is impossible.

Currently the Big Bang theory, based upon many observations and proofs, is widely accepted by astronomers.

Explanations Offered By Creationists

All creationists believe God created the heavens and the earth as the Bible says in Genesis. Many creationists accept the Big Bang theory as a description of "how" God created the universe. They say that this theory echoes what the Bible says about "the beginning" in Genesis 1. There are two major groups of creationists: "old-earth" creationists and "young-earth" creationists. Both groups believe that God set up the laws of physics to allow the universe to run in a predictable way.

The study of fossils, the hardened remains of prehistoric animals and plants.

What the Theory of Evolution Says

The Theory of Evolution (sometimes referred to as macroevolution) states that all living things "all species" have come from a single ancestor through a process of natural selection of small variations or descent with modification over a long period of time.

Before Darwin, biologists classified living things on the basis of similarities in appearance. But Darwin proposed that kinds of animals (species) should be classified on the basis of ancestry, in the form of a family tree called phylogenetic tree. The most recent species to evolve would be like twigs at the ends of ancestral branches. These branches are attached to larger branches of still older ancestors, and then to a trunk representing the first living form which all were evolved.

What Evolutionists Say We Ought to See

Darwin hoped that the fossil record would agree with and strengthen his theory by containing many transitional forms between species, filling out the branches of his hypothetical "tree." The record was very incomplete at the time but he expected additional discoveries to make it more complete. Darwin also expected to see only gradual changes, not abrupt changes such as Cambrian "explosion" of life, dated some 550 million years ago.

If Darwin's theory of evolution were true, we should see transitional forms in fossils showing gradual change. Instead gaps occurred because these transitions forms were not found.

Many explanations for gaps in fossil record are given. For one thing, fossilization is relatively rare, especially for land-dwelling animals. The vast majority of fossils are of animals that lived in the sea. Darwin expected fossils of the earliest ancestors to occur in the oldest layers of compacted sediments from sea bottoms.

What We Actually Observe in Nature

In general we do not see fossils of transitional forms between different species of plant and animals. A few fossils that appear transitional have been reported, but major gaps remain. Most of the transitional forms (the missing links) Darwin expected to find are still missing. Despite the illustration in textbooks showing a gradual transition in the family tree of the horse or from ape to man, there is no hard evidence for it. In the case of ape to man, virtually every "missing link" has turned out to be either an ape or man, but not a transitional kind of ape-man. Some finds were deliberate hoaxes.

Another finding, the "Cambrian Explosion," seems to contradict Darwin's theory of gradual change over long periods of time. Layers of sediment from the Cambrian period, estimated to be about 550 million years ago, show a sudden appearance of about 100 phyla of plants and animals. Biochemist Michael Behe uses the phrase "the biological big bang" to describe this period thought to be less than five million years in duration.

Biologist Richard Dawkins, in commenting on the Cambrian Explosion in The Blind Watchmaker, said, that "It is as though they [these species] were just planted there, without any evolutionary history." This mystery has caused some scientists to modify parts of Darwin's theory and adopt a new theory called punctuated equilibrium (or "punk eek"). Punk eek suggests that most transitions happened quickly in small isolated groups of animals so there never were transitional forms.

What Scientists Say

Why then is not every geological formation and every stratum full of such intermediate fossil links? Darwin writes, "That our paleontological collections are very imperfect, is admitted by everyone." Nonetheless, fossilized shell species and vertebrate species fragments preserved in deposits are observed in nature, and from these, evolutionary sequences are assumed and proposed as evidence supporting Darwinian evolution. Paleontologist Stephen Gould writes, "All paleontologists know that the fossil record contains precious little in the way of intermediate forms; transitions between major groups are characteristically abrupt." Gould says further, "The extreme rarity of transitional forms in the fossil record persists as the trade secret of paleontology. . . . . The evolutionary trees that adorn our textbooks have data only at the tips and nodes of their branches; the rest is inference, however reasonable, not the evidence of fossils. Heribert Nilsson writes, "The family tree of the horse is beautiful and continuous only in the textbooks." Darwin, in a later book, the Decent of Man, proposed that man evolved from lower forms based on comparison of body dimensions, effects of environments, use and disuse of body parts, distinctive facial features, natural selection, social habits and intelligence. According to zoologist Percival Davis, Darwin did not cite a single reference to fossils in support of his belief in human evolution. Clearly his original idea of human evolution did not grow out of a study of human fossil evidence, but out of a previously held opinion about the origin of man.

Explanations Offered By Creationists

Creationists believe the rarity of observed transitional forms is due to the rarity of actual transitional forms because natural evolution alone did not produce what we now observe. Most creationists regard the history of life on earth as following roughly in the same order and sequence given in Genesis 1. Young-earth creationists do not accept the geological timetable in general, nor its use to infer any dating of fossils, in particular. They believe in God's direct intervention in the creation of life and of major "kinds" of living things.

Old-earth creationists who accept the geological timetable also give God credit for the origin and development of living things. Creationists may differ on how much of the process was actively directed by God's hand. Research scientists Don Stoner, in his book A New Look at an Old Earth, says, This [Cambrian Explosion] is an interesting companion to the Bible's phrase, "Let the water teem with living things".

Darwinists believe that man evolved from the lower primates. Davis says, "Darwinists have been searching for fossil remains to establish their belief that man evolved. . . .fossil remains of hominids are not comparatively few in number, they are usually very fragmentary . . . . [And paleontologists] cannot agree on any scheme of evolution."

The study of heredity and variation in related animals and plants.

What the Theory of Evolution Says

Darwin's theory stated that evolution can change one type of organism into another. He also thought the father's contribution "blended" with the mother;s, and that a trait which supports survival would become reproductively dominant over time. Darwin did not have a clear understanding of the laws of inheritance of such traits, because they were discovered a few years earlier by an Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel. In the 1900 geneticists incorporated Mendel's four laws of inheritance into Darwin's theory. They called the new theory "neo-Darwinism" in which the individual units of inheritance were generation to generation. For example, when Mendel crossed a pea plant having round seeds with one having wrinkled seeds, all the offspring in the first generation were round peas, not "blended." The wrinkled seed gene was present, suppressed by the dominant round-seed gene. However, wrinkled peas appeared in one-quarter of the offspring in the second generation. Blended traits do not exist. Now we know that mutations cause chemicals changes to genes.

What Evolutionists Say We Ought to See

If neo-Darwinism were true we would expect to see strong evidence of change from one species to another (for example, ape to man, or descent with modification from a common ancestor). We should see the traits follow the genetic laws of Mendel and appear relatively stable from one generation to the next. However, dominant genes do not become more dominant as had been hoped by those favoring Darwinian evolution. Mendel's laws of inheritance only explain microevolution, such as natural or domestic breeding of desirable changes or variations within plant and animal species.

For macroevolution to occur we ought to see something which dramatically changes the genes, something like gene mutation, a proposed mechanism to provide an increase in species complexity. We should see the effects of beneficial mutation and natural selection making significant changes in species. While mutations can be increased by heat, chemicals and radiation, most mutations are harmful. Most lead to structural impairment, genetic diseases and death. (The ratio of harmful to beneficial mutations is at least 10,000 to one.)

What We Actually Observe in Nature

We observe microevolution both in nature and through purposeful domestication within species. We do not observe macroevolution. Purposeful domestication (selective breeding) has been used to produce changes or desired variations within many species for more than 2000 years. Examples include cats, dogs, beef and milk cattle, race and plow horses, roses, wheat and corn. All have been changed through microevolution which follows Mendel's law of inheritance, not the concept of blending traits envisioned by Darwin. Scientists admit macroevolution cannot be observed under natural conditions. If it happened, it occurred in the distant past and would be too slow to observe now.

However, in laboratory experiments, fruit flies have been altered to grow legs from there heads, one of many freakish major mutations possible. These changes were produced by large doses of radiation to greatly increase the mutation rate and alter genes. These changes neither created a new structure (just altering existed ones) nor changing the fly into a new kind of insect. These flies may breed under laboratory conditions, but cannot survive in nature because of this harmful mutation.

Davis writes, "Mutation does not introduce new levels of complexity, and it cannot be shown that it is a step in the right direction. Most observed mutations are harmful, and there is no experimental evidence to show that a new animal organism or even a novel structural feature has ever been produced from the raw material produced by mutations."

What Scientists Say

Some scientists promote evolution despite the lack of evidence. Others point out the failure of evolution. "There is no debate within the scientific community over whether evolution has occurred, and there is no evidence that evolution has not occurred," writes the National Academy of Science of the U.S. In 1995, the American National Association of Biology Teachers stated, "The diversity of life on earth is the outcome of evolution: an unsupervised, impersonal, unpredictable and natural process of . . . descent with genetic modification that is affected by natural selection, chance . . . and changing environments."

Many secular scientists disagree. Pierre-Paul Grasse of the French Academy of Sciences writes, "No matter how numerous they may be, mutations do not produce any kind of evolution." Molecular biologist Michael Denton says, "The failure to validate the Darwinian model has implications which reach far beyond biology." Information theorist Hubert Yockey writes,"One must conclude that, contrary to the established and current wisdom, a scenario describing the genesis of life on earth by chance and natural causes which can be accepted on the basis of fact and not faith has not yet been written (Information Theory and Molecular Biology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Ferguson says, "Scientists are particularly loath to relinquish the last form of prejudice . . . It must be true because anything else would be unthinkable." For example, Dawkins says, " . . . the only alternative explanation of the sudden appearance of so many complex animal types in the Cambrian era is divine creation, and [we] both reject this alternative." (The Blind Watchmaker, 1986, pp 229-230).

What Creationists Say

While accepting variations within species (microevolution, not Darwinian evolution), most creationists do not believe that new species have arisen through macroevolution and that honest scientific study proves this point. All creationists recognize God as the Creator of the universe and humans, believing that in some special way He made us in His own image. (Genesis 1:26) Morris objects to the term microevolution to describe "horizontal variations" of plants and animals at the same level of complexity because microevolution may give the impression that with enough time, it could become macroevolution. In their book, the Genesis flood, John C. Whitcomb and Henry M. Morris show a diagram of how specially created "kind," horse and dog for example, may have become diversified from their common ancestral pairs from the beginning to the present. This has been called "creationist adaptation" (natural selection). Behe says "On a small scale, microevolution, Darwin's theory has triumphed" but it is at the level of macroevolution-of large jumps-that the theory evokes skepticism - Persuasive evidence to support that position has not been forthcoming." On mutations, Davis writes, "There is no evidence mutations create new structures. They merely alter existing ones" Mutations are quite rare. This is fortunate, for the vast majority are harmful, although some may be neutral. Some creationists explain the rapid speciation of the past as the six days which God created, and the present lack of speciation, as the "seventh day" in which God rests.

The study of chemical process occurring in living plants and animals.

What the Theory of Evolution Says

With the discovery of DNA, the genetic data bank, evolutionists were given new hope that they might find evidence supporting evolution of molecules. Darwin developed his theory at a time when little was known about the chemical composition of plants and animals, even less about chemical reactions within living cells, and nothing about the chemistry of genes (DNA) and gene products (proteins).

The double helix structure of DNA, discovered in 1953, almost 100 years after Darwin's pioneering work, cleared up many mysteries. Now we know that each gene is a section of a long DNA molecule containing many genes. Genetic information can exist in stable form for thousands of years, yet can be copied easily when cells divide. Knowledge unavailable to Darwin enables genetic engineers to manipulate DNA, transform it from one species to another, and even clone animals. Therefore, artificially (or directed) as well as naturally (or random) occurring mutations on a single part of a DNA molecule are possible sources of biological variation.

What Evolutionists Say We Ought to See

Evolutionists say that evolution needs to make sense at the molecular level. If evolution were true, we ought to observe and explain many things, including the following:

- How the nucleic acids and proteins became so complex and well adapted to their highly specific functions.

- How evolutionary processes were directed from the first forms of life - proteins to cells to plants to animals.

- How mutations work in the DNA molecule.

- How molecular "clock" findings, used to estimate the time since an animal or plant split off from its common ancestor, can correlate and be consistent with fossil record.

- How comparison of DNA between species, for example humans and apes, can show how closely they are related on a molecular "tree of life."

What We Actually Observe in Nature

Microevolution is now observed in molecules, yet an orderly progression from one species to another is not clearly supported by biochemistry. Many mutations are known to be changes in a single letter in a message "written" on a long DNA molecule. For example, a person can become quite sick from having a slightly different form of some protein, like hemoglobin (the molecule that carries oxygen in our red blood cells). Biochemists can detect which part of the molecule differs from the normal protein and even pin the blame on a specific chemical change in the DNA of the gene for hemoglobin structure.

Can scientists prove that two kinds of animals are related by observing DNA? Molecular biologist Christian Schwabe writes, "Molecular evolution is about to be accepted as a method superior to paleontology for the discovery of evolutionary relationships. As a molecular evolutionist I should be elated. Instead it seems disconcerting that many exceptions exist in the orderly progression of species as determined by molecular homologies: so many in fact that I think the exception, the quirks, may carry the more important message." Some molecular biologists speak of evidence of directed evolution, not Darwinian evolution.

What Scientists Say

Evolutionists expected that an improved understanding of mutations, amino acids and DNA should put their theory on firmer ground, but instead biochemistry has raised challenging new questions. Biochemistry has not confirmed macroevolution. Attempts have been made to use molecular clocks to tell us how long ago each species branched off from its common ancestor of a proposed evolutionary tree. But, these molecular clocks run at different rates for different species and for different positions along the DNA molecule. These differences produce very large uncertainties in time, and the data have not compared well to fossil records, so the molecular clocks usefulness is questionable.

Denton says, "The really significant findings that come to light from comparing the protein's amino acid sequences is that it is impossible to arrange them in any sort of evolutionary series. Thousands of different sequences, protein and nucleic acid, have now been compared to hundreds of different species but never has any sequence been found to be in any sense the lineal descendant or ancestor of any other sequence. In terms of their biochemistry, none of the species deemed "intermediate", "ancestral", or "primitive" by generations of evolutionary biologists, and alluded to as evidence of sequence in nature, shows any signs of supposed intermediate status." Davis says, "it has proved impossible to arrange protein sequences in a macroevolution series corresponding to the expected transitions, from fish to amphibian to reptile to mammal."

Explanations Offered By Creationists

Creationists credit God with creation of everything that exists, down to the molecular level and even the subatomic level. A DNA molecule contains massive and complex "genetic information" which, like a blueprint, specifies how one living cell is put together. Molecular biologists speak of "messages" and whole libraries with information "written" in the "DNA code" or the "language of the proteins." Lindsay wrote that the "information in one cell would fill a thousand 600-page books; and, this one cell can be used to reassemble the whole body"

Davis says, "Darwinists have help such high expectations that biochemistry would provide evidence of gradual change between taxonomic groups. However, biochemistry has not provided that kind of evidence."

Behe points to the structure of an organ, the human eye, which would not work unless all its many components were integrated. To illustrate the concept, Behe uses a simple mousetrap comprised of five "well-matched, interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to cease functioning." Behe argues that no feasible evolutionary explanation exists for some "irreducibly complex systems" [not only in organs, but] in even the simplest cells and molecular systems." Behe argues that this challenges the whole idea of molecular evolution.

The use of numbers, symbols and equations to study quantities and their relationships.

What the Theory of Evolution Says

Scientists can calculate the probabilities of certain biological changes occurring over a given time. Evolutionists assume there was enough time (4.5 billion years) to originate pre-biological life and to evolve complex life from the first living cell.

They think lifeless chemicals were somehow changed into life according to chemical laws that we can observe today. They propose that small molecules combined to form larger molecules which organized themselves into a one-celled living organism. But, this simple self-replicating organism (requiring dozens of molecules) would be extremely difficult to assemble by natural process. While evolutionary biology is not very quantitive, some laws of chemistry and genetics can be expressed in the form of equations which provide probability of change over time. This means that scientists can estimate the amount of time it would take to originate a single cell and the time needed to evolve complex life forms from it.

What Evolutionists Say We Ought to See

If life originated from chemicals by chance, then under laboratory conditions, we should be able to see chemicals changing into living organisms today. Mathematics should be able to show with reasonable probability that there is adequate time for chemicals to combine to produce life and cause complex life forms to arise from "primordial soup." If some event, such as a specific mutation in a DNA molecule has a mathematical probability greater than zero, the chance that it will occur increases by time. (Similarly, your chances of having a bicycle accident increase with the amount of time you spend on a bike.) Even if the probability of occurrence is extremely small, it can happen, given enough time. Scientists were elated in 1952 when Stanley Miller showed that two organic molecules (such as amino acids, the building blocks of proteins) form when a mixture of simple gasses is exposed to a spark source of energy. The hope that these molecules would accumulate into a rich organic "soup" that would produce life was dashed by decades of subsequent research showing the strong improbability of this soup-to-life theory.

What We Actually Observe in Nature

Scientist show that the probability of complex life (such as plants and animals on earth) evolving by Darwin's evolutionary model is extremely small, zero statistically. According to most mathematical calculations, a universe 100 billion years old is still not old enough for a simple single cell to have developed on earth. Even attempts to synthesize RNA, an information carrying molecule, in the laboratory have also been unsuccessful. Life has not been explained through chemical origins.

Harold Morowitz, a biophysicist, compared the number of interactions needed to randomly produce a living cell with the number of interactions available since the beginning of the universe. The mathematical probabilities are so small that we ought to see no life at all at this stage of the earth's history. The probability of assembling amino acid building blocks into a functional protein is also too small to consider possible. Random assembly is therefore ruled out of the question.

Hoyle comments, "The current scenario of the origins of life is about as likely as the assembly of a fully functional (Boeing) 747 by a tornado whirling about in a junkyard." The Darwinian theory of evolution fails to predict what we actually currently observe. Schutzenberger, a mathematician writes, "There is a considerable gap in the neo-Darwinian theory of evolution, and we believe the gap to be of such a nature that it cannot be bridged by the current conception of biology."

What Scientists Say

Hubert Yuckey, an information theorist, argues that the information needed to begin life could not have developed by chance; he suggests that life be considered a given "quantity," like matter or energy. He and some other mathematicians have challenged evolutionary biologists with the extreme improbability of the origin of life by chance chemical reactions, and of the improbability of the origin of all known species by random mutations. If the real "units of life" are bits of information (that is, the messages coded on DNA rather than the DNA molecule itself), evolutionary biology may take quite a different turn in the future.

A very mathematical "information theory" has been developed to solve problems in storing and transmitting information, as do computers and telecommunication systems. Some scientists are applying information theory to help unravel certain unsolved problems in biology, such as prebiological selection, similar in concept to the biological natural selection of Darwinism. They are also studying the self-organized properties of complex chemical systems, and searching for ways to reduce the minimum complexity needed for life. The goal is to find a sensible plausible theory to explain the origin of life. Nobel Laureate Francis Crick writes, "An honest man, armed with all the knowledge available to us now, could only state in some sense, the origin of life appears at the moment to be a miracle, so many are the conditions which would have been satisfied to get it going."

ON MATHEMATICAL PROBABILITY: "Life cannot have had a random beginning... The trouble is that there are about two thousand enzymes, and the chance of obtaining them all in a random trial is only one part in (10 to the 20th) to the 2,000th = 10 to the 40,000th, an outrageously small probability that could not be faced even if the whole universe consisted of organic soup" (Fred Hoyle and N. Chandra Wickramasinghe, Evolution from Space [Aldine House, 33 Welbeck Street, London W1M 8LX: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1981).

Explanations Offered By Creationists

Creationists agree with scientists and mathematicians that the formation of life through evolution is extremely impossible, in fact, statistically impossible. Creationists believe that God is the author of the whole universe and also of the messages written on the DNA molecules of all living things.

How did those DNA messages get there in the first place? Some scientists, mathematicians, and philosophers are working on a theory of "intelligent design" (ID) claiming that the first life was designed and could not have been produced by an unintelligent naturalistic process. Most proponents of ID think "God did it" but do not include this claim in their theories. Scientific evidence for an intelligent designer is discussed by J. P. Moreland and others. They are trying to find new ways to explore the origin and transformation of biological information, believing firmly that God is the ultimate source of the information.

The Bible states, "Through faith we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of God, so that things which were seen were not made of things that do appear." (Hebrews 11:3) and, "Thou art worthy, O Lord, to receive glory and honour and power: for thou hast created all things, and for thy pleasure they are and were created." (Revelation 4:11)

It takes more faith to struggle with the forced supposition of evolution than it does to recognize the amazing intricacy of life joined with a fathomless balance of nature and admit that it could not have happened by chance. In what have you placed your faith and why?

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